Tuesday, November 23, 2021
EP MATERIAL - Angel Investor
Definition
of 'Angel Investor'
An investor who provides financial backing for small startups or
entrepreneurs. Angel investors are usually found among an entrepreneur's family
and friends. The capital they provide can be a one-time injection of seed money
or ongoing support to carry the company through difficult times.
Record keeping
These materials are designed
to provide accurate and authoritative information on the subject of record
keeping for small businesses. They are provided by the Missouri Small Business &
Technology Development Centers with the understanding
that the authors are not engaged in rendering legal, accounting or other
professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required,
the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Completion of
these materials does not ensure success in business.
Contents
§ Purpose
§ Overview
Setting up a basic record
keeping system
§ Comprehensive overview
Defining your business’ record
keeping/accounting system
Chart of accounts
Glossary of terms
Cash reports —
daily/weekly/monthly
Business financial statement
checklist
Introduction
Keeping records is crucial to successfully manage a business. A
comprehensive record keeping system makes it possible to develop accurate and
timely financial reports that show the progress and current condition of the
business. With the financial report you can generate from a good record keeping
system, you can compare performance across periods of time (month, quarter or
year), calculate trends and plan for the business’s future.
Every entrepreneur enters the business world with individual
skills, interests, education, training, experience and ability. Some
entrepreneurs are strong salespersons and possess excellent people skills and
hands-on product/service knowledge that generate revenue for the firm. Some
entrepreneurs are more management and detail-oriented. They like organizing,
developing policies and procedures and record keeping.
To be successful, a business owner must possess a good blend of
sales, customer service, management and record keeping skills. The sole
proprietor must assume all the responsibility; but if the business has more
than one owner or employee, it has the advantage of bringing sales, customer
service, management and detail-oriented persons together to cover all aspects
of the business.
Purpose
The purpose of a good record keeping system is to provide
management information to use in operating the business. Because cash flow and
profitability are closely tied to financial analysis, it is vital that the
entrepreneur understand the external and internal financial factors that affect
business. The record keeping system provides the foundations for monitoring and
measuring the progress of the business. It provides a blueprint for fiscal
control by monitoring and measuring sales, costs of goods sold, gross profits,
expenses and taxes. The entrepreneur should be involved in setting up the
record keeping system and the chart of accounts, which includes elements
critical in managing day-to-day operations.
Overview
Setting up a basic record keeping system
Many business finance professionals recommend that all
entrepreneurs be knowledgeable about basic record keeping practices. The
entrepreneur who decides to purchase a record keeping program, or has a
bookkeeper or accountant, still needs to understand the basic premises.
The following is a simplified lexicon of basic record keeping
that demonstrates how to set up your own accounting system.
A journal is a book for recording
business transactions in chronological order. A simple method of record keeping
is to use 13-column paper for journals. You derive the information for each journal entry from original source
documents, such as receipts for cash paid or received, checks written or
received, cash register tapes, sales tickets, etc. The information appearing on
these documents must be analyzed to determine the specific accounts affected
and the dollar amounts, then the proper journal entry is recorded. A journal is
also called the book of original entry.
A transaction is entered in a journal
before it is entered in ledger accounts. Transactions are entered into the
journals by date, amount, description and account to which the transaction has
been assigned. For example, when rent is paid, the journal entry would be made
in the cash disbursement journalunder the accounts of cash and rent.
Different journals are
used for different source documents. Cash coming into the business (cash sales,
bank loans, interest income) is entered in chronological order in a cash receipts journal. Cash going out of the business (expenses:
rent, insurance, payroll, purchases) is recorded in acash disbursement journal.
The checkbook is the source for recording disbursements.
All disbursements should be made by check
from a separate business account. This provides an audit trail in case of an
IRS audit. Sales and purchases on credit are entered into a sales journal and purchases journal, respectively. These journals are the original entry for the
accounts receivable and accounts payable. A payroll journal is used to show employee
gross wages, taxes/other deductions withheld and net wages. It also shows the
employer’s share of FICA, Medicare and unemployment taxes. A general journal is used for
miscellaneous entries and adjustments such as depreciation and inventory.
The accounting system is built around a list of account names called achart of accounts and is organized under assets, liabilities, owner’s equity,
revenue or income, cost of goods sold (for a business that sells a product),
operating expenses and other income/expenses. The accounts you keep are tailor
made for your particular business.
Assets are things of value owned by a business including cash,
receivables, investments, buildings, land, equipment, vehicles, etc.
Liabilities are those amounts the business owes the creditors. They include
payables, notes, loans, mortgages, etc.
Owner’s equity or capital (sometimes called net worth) is the owners’ investments and the
accumulation of profit or losses for the business since it began. It is also
the difference between assets and liabilities.
Revenue or income is the money that came into the business from the sale of goods
and services. Income is measured for a period of time.
Cost of goods sold is the cost of the product being sold by the business. A service
business will not have a cost of goods sold.
Operating expenses are the daily expenses in running a business. For example, rent,
advertising, insurance, etc.
Other income/expenses are not daily necessities or a required part of the business
operation. However, they are a part of doing business such as interest income
and expense.
At the end of each
month, all transactions are totaled and only the total of each account is
posted to the general ledger on three-column paper. Thegeneral ledger is a cumulative (year to date) book that contains the individual
accounts maintained by the business and shows the balances in each account.
Financial statements (balance sheet and income statement) are
prepared using the account balances from the general ledger.
The balance sheet is a financial report as
of a specific date that lists the assets, liabilities and owner’s equity. It is
a snapshot of the business at a point in time.
The income statement or profit and loss statement is the financial report that shows if the business had a profit
or loss. It is revenue minus expenses.
Comprehensive overview
Defining your business’ record
keeping/accounting system
The basis of your business’ record keeping/accounting system is
the chart of accounts, a listing by account name and number that defines the
business. Most record keeping systems, whether manual or computerized, begin
with a generic chart of accounts. The problem with using an unmodified generic
chart of accounts is that the standard account numbers are not specific to your
business. Each business should have a unique chart of accounts that reflects
its operation and market niche. Suggested charts of accounts may be modified to
better reflect the actual assets, liabilities, sales, costs and expense
accounts of the specific business. This requires owner/manager participation in
developing and defining the chart of accounts.
Each account should have a name and number that identifies and
defines it. An account must tie to a specific type of business transaction. If
you define the types of business transactions that your business will record,
this will tell you how to set up the name and numbering sequence of each
account that you will need to record, monitor and measure your business
transactions.
The numbering system is quite flexible. There are three digits
for each category. The first digit, 1, defines the type of account, i.e.
assets, liabilities, equity, revenue, etc. The second two digits allow up to 99
accounts to define the account structure. If 100-199 is assets, then 100 could
be cash, 105 might be petty cash, 110 accounts receivable, 120 inventory and
130 deposits such as sales tax.
It is a good idea to allow skips in the numbering sequence so
you can add additional accounts later, without having to revise the entire
numbering sequence. See the table below for examples.
|
100-199 Assets |
400-499 Revenue |
|
Current assets |
400 Sales revenue |
|
100 Cash |
405 Sales returns/allowances |
|
105 Petty cash |
410 Over/(under) |
|
110 Accounts receivable |
420 Miscellaneous |
|
120 Inventory |
|
|
130 Deposits (sales tax, rent) |
500-599 Expenses |
|
Fixed assets |
500 Merchandise purchases |
|
150 Furnitures/fixtures |
510 Purchase discounts |
|
160 Machinery/equipment |
520 Inventory variance |
|
170 Vehicles |
|
|
180 Accumulated depreciation |
600-699 General Expenses |
|
200-299 Liabilities |
600 Accounting/legal/licenses |
|
605 Advertising |
|
|
Current liabilities |
610 Depreciation, furniture/fixtures |
|
200 Accounts payable |
615 Depreciation, vehicle |
|
210 FICA/federal income tax payable |
620 Electricity |
|
220 State income tax payable |
625 Insurance |
|
230 Salaries payable |
630 Interest |
|
240 Federal unemployment payable |
635 Maintenance/repairs |
|
250 State unemployment payable |
640 Payroll expense |
|
260 Sales tax payable |
645 Rent expense |
|
650 Salaries/wages |
|
|
Long-term liabilities |
660 Supplies |
|
280 Notes payable, long-term |
665 Telephone |
|
300-399 Equity |
700-799 Clearing &
Summary Accounts |
|
300 Owner’s equity * |
701 Income summary |
|
320 Owner’s withdrawal * |
|
|
* Sole proprietorship recorded differently with
partnership or corporation. |
|
Chart of accounts – glossary of terms
Assets
Anything of value owned by or legally due the business. Examples include cash,
accounts receivable, inventory and prepaid insurance.
Liabilities
All debts of a business and all claims creditors have on the business’ assets,
i.e. amounts owed to suppliers, short and long term loans, taxes and mortgage
balances.
Owner equity/net worth
The difference between assets and liabilities, or between what the business
owns and what it owes.
Revenues *
The dollar amount of services rendered or goods sold. In addition to actual
cash transactions, revenues include sales and services sold to customers on
credit.
Expenses *
The costs of doing business.
______________________________________
* Revenue and expense accounts
fit in the accounting equation by being part of owner’ equity. They are
temporary accounts. At the end of the accounting period, expenses are
subtracted from revenue. The result is the profit or loss for the period.
Single vs. double entry record
keeping
Now you
have laid out the blueprint for your record keeping, monitoring and measurement
systems. There are some other considerations that will affect your record
keeping functions. One consideration is whether to use single or double entry
record keeping.
Single entry
Single
entry is a simple listing of cash receipts and checks paid out. It is not a
debit/credit system, but records monies received in a cash receipts journal
(cash in) and monies paid out in the cash disbursements journal (cash out).
From these two listings, a simple profit and loss statement and cash flow
statement can be developed. The single entry can be kept manually on a notepad
or journal with columns labeled with your chart of account numbers.
Double entry
Because
the double entry system is more sophisticated, an understanding of bookkeeping
principles is needed to implement it. A small business with a limited number of
transactions and employees can get by on a single entry system, either manual
or computerized. All businesses require accounts receivable controls, accounts
payable controls and pricing policies. For larger businesses with employees,
with different departments or with inventory to manage, it is wise to implement
double entry record keeping because it affords checks and balances.
Cash vs. accrual record
keeping/accounting
Another
consideration is whether you use cash basis or accrual basis accounting for
record keeping and reporting purposes. According to the IRS, a business is
allowed to use either method or a hybrid. According to standard accounting
procedures, whatever method you choose for your first fiscal year must be used
in following fiscal years. Consistency is necessary for correct reporting.
Cash basis record keeping
Cash
basis record keeping is a simple concept: You only record sales when you
actually receive the monies/revenue. You only record expenses when you actually
pay them. This is cash in and cash out in its purest sense.
Accrual basis record keeping
Accrual
basis record keeping is also a simple concept. You record all items/services
you sell, whether the sale is cash or credit in the current fiscal period. If
credit, the remaining balance will be recorded as receivable in the current
fiscal period. Accounts receivable are the accrual. You have sold the item and
it is recorded as sold for XXX dollars. However, you have not received all the
cash. The customer must still pay you. The amount due is the receivable amount.
You have accrued, but not received, the revenue.
The same principle is used with all expenses. You record the
expenses the business has incurred in the current fiscal period, not just the
expenses you have paid in full. Payroll is an example of an accrued expense. On
December 31, you might owe $2,500 in wages and $800 in payroll taxes even
though they have not yet been paid. You can accrue these expenses with a record
keeping entry and use them in the current fiscal year against your income tax.
The same may be done with equipment or inventory purchased on credit.
If you produce, purchase or sell merchandise for income/revenue,
you must use an accrual or hybrid method for purchases and sales. This is
because you must take inventories into account in figuring your taxable income.
Remember that if you use a cash record keeping system for
income/revenue, you must use a cash system for expenses. If you use the accrual
method for income/revenue, you must use the accrual method for expenses.
There are advantages and disadvantages to each method. The
obvious advantage to cash accounting is that it is simple to understand and
easy to apply. If you received or paid cash (cash in/cash out), it counts as a
revenue or an expense in the current fiscal year; there are no accruals. A
disadvantage of cash basis accounting is that it can be difficult to get an
overall view of the business’s exact financial position. The records do not
show all the revenue or expenses the business has incurred at the close of the
fiscal year.
The primary advantage to the accrual accounting system is that
it gives the owner/manager a more accurate picture of the actual financial
performance of the business. The larger and more complex the business, the more
important accrual accounting is as a management tool. The disadvantage of the
accrual method is that the concept is more complex to understand and to apply.
The entrepreneur must know and understand what revenues or expenses are not
recorded in the books at the end of the fiscal period and make the entries to
record income/revenue and expenses the business has incurred but not yet
received or paid.
Here are examples of a cash receipts
journal (spreadsheet) (cash in) and a cash disbursements journal
(spreadsheet) (cash out). These are
the basic journals required to record the transactions of any business. From
these two journals a simple profit and loss statement can be made on a monthly
basis for management understanding and control.
The chart of accounts and journals may be either a manual system
using columnar pads or a computerized system. Entrepreneurs should master a
manual system before using a program.
Computerized record keeping/accounting
systems
A
simple manual or computerized record keeping/accounting system works well for a
sole proprietorship with a small payroll and very little inventory. However, if
a business has a large payroll, inventory, accounts receivable or accounts
payable, a computerized system may be better. Entrepreneurs should understand a
manual accounting system very well before changing to a computer system. Record
keeping/accounting systems link word processing, spreadsheet and database
programs. The following is a more comprehensive discussion of some aspects of a
computerized system.
Accounts receivable
An
accounts receivable program assists in the management of a large number of
customer accounts. It keeps a running record of all charges and payments. Its advantages
include the capability of sorting your customers by sales categories, the
automated production of customer statements, the capability to do aging
analysis of your accounts receivable and the ability to add reminder messages
on customer statements for overdue accounts. An automated system gives a
business more efficient and effective management and control of customer charge
accounts. A similar manual system is labor intensive and costly.
Payroll
A
payroll program can assist in timely and accurate management of payroll. It
keeps a running record of all payroll deductions per individual and cumulative
totals of payroll taxes the business has withheld and must pay. Its advantages
include automated check writing and payroll records, ease in applying updates
and changes in tax laws, issuing W-2 forms to employees and W-3 forms to the
Social Security Administration. The IRS also accepts electronic transfer of
payroll data.
Inventory control
An
inventory control program can assist in the management of sales, pricing,
costing and ordering of inventory. This is quite important on serial numbered
or high cost items, where inventory turnover is crucial to the cash flow of the
business. Its advantages include ease in applying price increases; availability
of current and accurate cost information for sales personnel; and automated
reports on items to order, low sales or obsolete items, high sales items and
out-of-stock items. An inventory control program assists you to oversee and
manage a large number of diverse units in inventory. Inventory control can be
done manually, but a program saves you time that can be used to analyze your
total inventory and make informed purchasing and sales decisions.
Accounts payable
An
accounts payable program assists in the management of payables and cash flow
and can help you keep track of what is due when. It enables you to have an
overview of the aging of your accounts payable by day, week and month, enabling
you to pay your bills on time, but not before they are due. With such a system
you can look 30 days into the future and see how much cash the business will
need to meet payables. This assists you in making the best use of cash flow to
meet the business’ needs and still pay creditors on a timely basis.
Reports/journals/schedules
From
the beginning, expect to prepare and/or maintain many of the following
reports/journals/schedules.
Cash reports – daily/weekly/monthly
§ Bank reconciliation
§ Cash receipts journal
§ Cash disbursements
journal
§ Statement of cash flows
§ Employee wage reports *
§ Payroll reports *
§ State tax reports (sales
– income) #
§ Workers’ compensation
insurance schedule of classifications *
§ Workers’ compensation
insurance schedule of premiums and payments *
§ Depreciation
§ Payroll summaries *
§ FUTA summary or
liability and schedule of payments *
§ Income tax estimates and
deposits
§ Employee W-2 forms *
§ Contractor 1099 forms
§ Overhead burden
§ Salesmen’s expense
reports #
§ Interest expense
§ Allocation of personal
use of company owned vehicles
§ Fixed and controllable
costs
§ Asset journal
§ Schedule of assets at
fair market value
§ Depreciation schedule
§ Insurance schedules
§ Balance sheet
§ Statement of income
§ Statement of cash flows
§ Notes to the financial
statements
§ Individual tax return
§ Partnership tax return
§ Corporate tax return
§ Financial statements
prepared at FMV
§ A general ledger
* Employers
# Retail
Business financial statement checklist
Daily
1.
Cash on hand.
2.
Bank balance. Keep business and personal funds separate.
3.
Daily summary of sales and cash receipts.
4.
That all errors in recording collections on accounts are
corrected.
5.
That a record of all monies paid out, by cash and checks, is
maintained.
Weekly
1.
Accounts receivable. Take action to motivate payment on past due
accounts.
2.
Accounts payable. Take advantage of early pay discounts.
3.
Payroll. Records should include name and address of employee,
social security number, number of exemptions, date ending the pay period, hours
worked, rate of pay, total wages, deductions, net pay and check number.
4.
Taxes and reports to state/federal government — sales,
withholding, social security, etc.
Monthly
1.
That all journal entries are classified according to like
elements and posted to general ledger. These should be generally accepted and
standardized for both income and expense.
2.
That a profit and loss statement for the month is available
within a reasonable time, usually 10 to 15 days following the close of the
month. This shows the income for the month, the expense incurred in obtaining
the income and the profit or loss resulting. If there is a loss, you may need
to adjust mark-up, reduce overhead expense, reduce pilferage, correct tax
reporting, change buying procedures and/or take advantage of cash discounts.
3.
That a balance sheet accompanies the profit and loss statement.
This shows assets, liabilities and the investment of the owner/s.
4.
The bank statement is reconciled. The owner’s books are in
agreement with the bank’s record of the cash balance.
5.
The petty cash account is in balance. Cash in the petty cash
box, plus the total of the paid-out slips that have not been changed to
expense, total the amount set aside as petty cash.
6.
That all federal tax deposits, withheld income, FICA taxes and
state taxes are made.
7.
That accounts receivable are aged, i.e. 30, 60, 90 days, etc.
past due. Work bad and slow accounts.
8.
That inventory is worked to remove dead stock and order new
stock. Reduce the price of slow-moving inventory. Leave the same/ or increase
the price of inventory that moves quickly.
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